Herbert Spencer
English polymath who coined 'survival of the fittest.'
Herbert Spencer (27 April 1820 – 8 December 1903) was an English thinker whose work spanned philosophy, psychology, biology, sociology, and anthropology. He is best known for coining the phrase "survival of the fittest" in his 1864 book *Principles of Biology*, a term he came up with after reading Charles Darwin's *On the Origin of Species*. While the phrase strongly evokes natural selection, Spencer believed evolution also applied to society and ethics, and he supported Lamarckian ideas of inherited traits. He built a sweeping theory of evolution as a progressive force shaping the physical universe, living organisms, the human mind, and culture and societies. A true polymath, he wrote on ethics, religion, anthropology, economics, political theory, philosophy, literature, astronomy, biology, sociology, and psychology. In his day, Spencer wielded enormous influence, especially in English-speaking academic circles. He was described as "the single most famous European intellectual in the closing decades of the nineteenth century," though his reputation faded sharply after 1900—prompting Talcott Parsons to ask in 1937, "Who now reads Spencer?"
Spencer was born in Derby, England, on 27 April 1820, to William George Spencer, a religious dissenter who moved from Methodism to Quakerism and passed on a strong opposition to authority. His father ran a school using the progressive methods of Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi and served as secretary of the Derby Philosophical Society, a scientific group founded in 1783 by Erasmus Darwin, Charles Darwin's grandfather. Spencer got his early education in empirical science from his father, while the society's members introduced him to pre-Darwinian evolutionary ideas, especially those of Erasmus Darwin and Jean-Baptiste Lamarck. His uncle, the Reverend Thomas Spencer, gave him some formal lessons in mathematics, physics, and enough Latin to translate simple texts, and also instilled in him firm free-trade and anti-government views. Beyond that, Spencer was largely self-taught, picking up knowledge through focused reading and conversations with friends and acquaintances.
As a teenager and young man, Spencer struggled to commit to any single field. He worked as a civil engineer during the railway boom of the late 1830s, while also writing for provincial journals that were nonconformist in religion and radical in politics. His firs
- born
- 27 April 1820
- died
- 8 December 1903
- field
- Philosophy, psychology, biology, sociology, anthropology
- nationality
- English
- known_for
- Coining 'survival of the fittest'; synthetic philosophy; applying evolution to sociology and ethics
Lore & Background
Spencer was born in Derby, Derbyshire, England, the son of William George Spencer, a religious dissenter who opposed all forms of authority. His father educated him in empirical science and introduced him to pre-Darwinian concepts of biological evolution through the Derby Philosophical Society. His uncle, the Reverend Thomas Spencer, taught him mathematics, physics, and Latin, and imprinted free-trade and anti-statist views. Otherwise, Spencer was an autodidact.
He worked as a civil engineer during the railway boom of the late 1830s and later as sub-editor on The Economist. His first book, Social Statics (1851), predicted the eventual withering away of the state. Through radical publisher John Chapman, he met John Stuart Mill, Harriet Martineau, George Henry Lewes, and Mary Ann Evans (George Eliot). His second book, Principles of Psychology (1855), explored a physiological basis for psychology and aimed to reconcile associationist psychology with phrenology via Lamarckian use-inheritance.
In 1858, Spencer outlined his System of Synthetic Philosophy, a ten-volume work that took twice as long as planned. By the 1870s he was the most famous philosopher of the age, supporting himself solely on book sales and periodical contributions. He became a member of the Athenaeum and the X Club, a dining club founded by T.H. Huxley. His later decades were marked by growing disillusionment, loneliness, and lifelong hypochondria; by the 1890s his readership began to desert him.
Reader's Guide
Herbert Spencer's significance lies in his ambitious attempt to apply the principle of evolution to all realms of knowledge—biology, psychology, sociology, and morality—through his Synthetic Philosophy. He coined the phrase 'survival of the fittest' after reading Darwin's On the Origin of Species, but he also supported Lamarckism, seeing evolution as extending into sociology and ethics. His influence was immense in English-speaking academia during the late 19th century, but declined sharply after 1900, as noted by Talcott Parsons in 1937: 'Who now reads Spencer?' His work helped popularize evolutionary thinking beyond biology, though his specific theories, including his Lamarckian views and his prediction of the state's withering away, have largely been superseded. His legacy endures as a key figure in the history of social Darwinism and the development of sociology as a discipline.
Did You Know?
- Spencer coined the expression 'survival of the fittest' in Principles of Biology (1864) after reading Charles Darwin's 1859 book On the Origin of Species.
- He was a lifelong hypochondriac who complained endlessly of pains and maladies that no physician could diagnose at that time.
- His uncle, the Reverend Thomas Spencer, taught him mathematics, physics, and Latin, and imprinted free-trade and anti-statist political views.
- Spencer was briefly romantically linked with Mary Ann Evans (George Eliot).
More in Social Scientists And Sociologists 1-24
Spotted an error? Know more?
This is a living reference — every entry is fact-audited, and reader corrections feed straight into our audit queue. Suggest an edit · See this site's audit record